Rough Draft: "Modes of Whiteness"

At the turn of the twentieth century, native-born white Americans continued to impose discrimination upon African Americans. In part, it was the rise of a consumer culture and a black migration to U.S. cities, which allowed for blacks and their contemporaries to counter the white culture's demeaning significations towards them. Alain Locke's "Enter the New Negro" identifies the plight of the African Americans of that time, and defines what they wanted out of the American experience. Part of that American, consumer experience can be articulated by the rise of the cosmetics industry, as discussed by Kathy Peiss. Both Peiss and Locke's works are represented in the photos of James Van Der Zee, who captures the new African American in moments of "whiteness." These three works collectively assert that the African American’s strongest defense in the face of white degradation was to become more "white" themselves, specifically through appearance and patterns of consumption.

While the Jim Crow laws were very definitive of the treatment of blacks at the turn of the century, there was also specific, harmful ideology at play in American culture. For example, Alain Locke establishes the definition of the “new negro” first by defining the “old negro.” Locke explains, “…for generations in the mind of America, the negro has been more of a formula than a human being- something to be argued about, condemned or defended, to be ‘kept down,’ or ‘in his place,’ or ‘helped up…’” (Locke, 1). Notice that “America,” here, is defined as a complete entity separate from the African American population. America, according to Locke, does not denote a sense of home or belonging for black people, but rather some kind of mechanism that has a mind of its own. This said “mind “ allowed white Americans to discriminate, control, and define blacks as something other than itself.

The black population’s journey from that of a “formula” to “human being,” in Locke’s terms, would require specific material acquirements in light of the emerging consumer economy. Locke asserts, “The negro mind reaches out as yet to nothing but American wants, American ideas. But this forced attempt to build his Americanism on race values is a unique social experiment, and its ultimate success is impossible except through the fullest sharing of American culture and institutions” (Locke, 5). In other words, it was consumerism, specifically, that allowed for blacks to acquire possessions that could redefine not only their material wealth, but also their physical appearance- the combination of which, would ultimately follow in the vein of white gentility.

Using the early twentieth century cosmetics industry as an example, we can look at some of the fundamental ways in which African American women participated in methods of social mobility. Peiss discusses the “democracy of cosmetics,” which arose in this time period. That is, beauty products were made accessible to the women of this generation to the extent that they had little excuse not to invest in their beauty. It is the reason why the Elizabeth Arden Company could gross $2 million domestically by the year 1925 alone (Peiss, 377).
What is more, the democracy of beauty allowed for black women, specifically, to become routine consumers. Peiss explains, “ …the dominant culture’s ascription of promiscuity to black women led them to stress the importance of looking respectable. For black women, hair care, including straightening, was one external marker of personal success and racial progress…” (Peiss, 383). So, not only did the material possession of cosmetic products signify outer beauty for all women, but more importantly, cosmetics came to signify an African American woman’s inner morals and social standing.

Van Der Zee’s photograph, “Harlem socialites at five o’clock tea,” portrays a group of four black women sitting in a parlor, apparently taking part in what was previously regarded as a very Anglo-Saxon ritual. What is more, however, is that every woman wore their hair straightened and modestly parted. The image is telling of its time, as it directly reflects the ethic of a cosmetics industry in which “…white racism had symbolically linked the supposed ‘natural’ inferiority of Blacks to an appearance marked by unruly, ‘kinky’ hair” (Peiss, 383). The alternative, then, was to follow the example of what was largely a white-dominated industry, and as a Black woman, you mirrored your beauty routines after that of white women.

African American men of this time period are faced with a comparable struggle, trying to make their way financially and socially. Van Der Zee’s portrait of a young, pensive, black soldier captures just this. Similar to the portrait of the black ladies having tea, it appears as though this young man has been dropped into his surroundings-in this case, a decidedly white, upper class study of some sort. He wears a beautiful uniform as he sits in a well-appointed room, and yet the toiling expression on his face makes the viewer ask, at what price is this young man serving his country?

Locke explains the dichotomy facing this young man. Up until this time in history, the black man had experienced an America, “…which has most undervalued him, and here he has contributed not only materially in labor and in social patience, but in spiritually as well” (Locke, 7). In order to be recognized for his contributions, the African American man must walk in the footsteps of his white leaders, just as this young man has done by enlisting himself in the army. It is through white, culturally supported institutions, such as the U.S. Army, that black men can make a contribution to society in a way that will not be in vain.

Locke highlights another social dichotomy that largely led black men to embrace modes of whiteness. “Enter the New Negro” establishes that “the intelligent negro of today is resolved not to make discrimination an extenuation for his shortcomings in performance, individual or collective; he is trying to hold himself at par…” (Locke, 3). In moving forward, beyond time-old grudges of racism and oppression, black men were again given the opportunity to advance themselves based on lifestyle choices that reflected the tastes of white American culture of the time. Van der zee’s “Family portrait with children at piano,” portrays a black family in a fancy living room setting. Recalling from Peiss’ discussion about cosmetics, it is interesting to note that all four of the family members, notably the two baby boys, have straight, parted hair. The father stands in a three piece suit watching fondly as his young sons sit at the piano. Not only have the mother and father conformed to “white” modes of fashion and lifestyle themeselves, but the portrait suggests that they have also dedicated their lives to raising their sons in that said fashion.

As historical writers such as Kathy Peiss, and photographers such as James Van Der Zee have documented, many African Americans’ chosen modes of Americanization tended to mimic that of a white lifestyle at the beginning of the twentieth century. Becoming more “white” was a cultural decision embraced by many African Americans, that has a social agenda, more profound and more noble than what may be initially evident. For those who questioned the allegiance of black citizens embracing whiteness at the turn of the century, Locke aptly explains, “we realize that we cannot be undone without America’s undoing” (5). Becoming more “white” was not so much of an oppressive compromise as it was a sound cultural claim that black people could look, act and function just as white Americans did.

Ultimately, in the midst of relocating themselves in the socio-economic realm, up against years of demeaning significations and racial oppression, the African American community countered previously established ideologies through white physical appearance and patterns of consumption.